Modern C Programming: Including Standards C99, C11, C17, C23

Preface....6 C99 Standard....7 C11 Standard....8 C17 Standard....8 C23 Standard....8 Contents....10 Chapter 1: Representation of Numbers and Characters in Computer....16 1.1 Number Bases....16 1.1.1 Decimal Numbers....16 1.1.2 Binary Numbers....16 1.1.3 Octal Numbers....17 1.1.4 Hexadecimal Numbers....17 1.2 Conversion Between Bases....18 1.2.1 Binary to Decimal Conversion....18 1.2.2 Binary to Octal Conversion....18 1.2.3 Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion....19 1.2.4 Decimal to Binary Conversion....20 1.2.5 Octal to Binary Conversion....21 1.2.6 Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion....21 1.2.7 Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion....22 1.3 Positive Integers....23 1.4 Two´s Complement Form....23 1.5 Negative Integers....25 1.6 Registers....26 1.7 Memory Units....27 1.8 How Are the Integers Stored in Computer Memory, Big-Endian, and Little-Endian?....27 Chapter 2: Data Types and Operators....29 2.1 How to Start Writing a C Program?....29 2.2 Comments in C Programming....31 2.3 The First C Program....31 2.4 Variables and Data Types....33 2.5 Binary Number Representation in Modern C....35 2.6 sizeof Operator in C....36 2.7 Unsigned Char Data Type....37 2.8 Left and Right Shift Operators in C....39 2.9 Integer Data Type....40 2.10 Hexadecimal and Octal Numbers....42 2.11 How Are Integers Stored in Computer Memory?....43 2.11.1 Short Integer Data Type....44 2.12 Why Do We Have Both Integer and Short Integer Data Types?....45 2.13 Long Integer and Long-Long Integer Data Types....46 2.14 Unsigned Integer Data Type....48 2.15 Floating-Point Number in C....53 2.15.1 IEEE 754 Floating-Point Standard (Single Precision)....53 2.16 Keyboard Input Using scanf in C....55 2.17 Operators in C Programming....57 2.17.1 Arithmetic Operators....57 2.17.1.1 Division of Integer Numbers....59 2.17.1.2 Multiplication of Integer Numbers....59 2.17.2 Remainder Operator %....60 2.17.3 Augmented Assignment Operators....61 2.17.4 Logical Operators....61 2.17.5 Bitwise Operators in C....64 2.17.6 Increment and Decrement Operators....74 2.18 Operator Precedence....76 Chapter 3: Type Conversion in C....81 3.1 Type Conversion Methods....81 3.1.1 Implicit Conversion....81 3.1.2 Explicit Conversion....84 3.2 Information Loss When a Higher-Order Data Is Converted to a Lower-Order Data....87 3.3 Information Loss When Conversion Is Performed Between Signed and Unsigned Data Types....88 Chapter 4: Structures....91 4.1 Introduction....91 4.2 Initialization of Structure Elements....92 4.3 Initialization Using Designated Initializer List....93 4.4 Typedef for Structures....97 4.4.1 Alternative Use of for Structures....99 4.5 Nested Structures....100 4.6 Structure Copying....102 4.7 Structures with Self-Referential....103 4.8 Bit Fields....105 4.9 Structures as Function Arguments....106 4.10 Structure Padding and Packing in C Programming....107 4.11 Unions....108 Chapter 5: Conditional Statements....112 5.1 Conditional Structure....112 5.2 Conditional Ladder Structure (-If Ladder)....117 5.3 Multiconditional Structures....120 5.4 Syntax of Nested If-Else....123 5.5 Conditional Operator in C....125 5.6 switch Statement....129 Chapter 6: Loop Statements....137 6.1 The For-Loop....137 6.1.1 Nested For-Loop....150 6.2 The While-Loop....152 6.2.1 Nested While-Loop....156 6.3 The Do-While Loop....159 6.4 Continue Statement....160 6.5 Break Statement....162 Chapter 7: Complex Numbers in Modern C Programming....169 7.1 How to Define a Complex Number....169 7.2 Complex Operations....170 7.3 Calculation of Absolute Value (Norm, Modulus, or Magnitude) of a Complex Number....173 7.4 Complex Number Formation....173 7.5 Calculation of the Conjugate of a Complex Number in C....174 7.6 Calculation of the Argument, That Is, Phase Angle, of a Complex Number in C....176 7.7 Calculation of Complex Exponentials....176 7.8 Computation of the Complex Natural (Base-e) Logarithm of a Complex Number....177 7.9 Complex Power Calculation....178 7.10 Square Root of a Complex Number....179 7.11 Complex Trigonometric Functions....180 7.11.1 The csin Functions....180 7.11.2 The ccos Functions....180 7.11.3 The ctan Functions....181 7.11.4 The cacos Functions....182 7.11.5 The casin Functions....182 7.11.6 The catan Functions....183 7.11.7 Hyperbolic Functions....184 Chapter 8: Arrays....186 8.1 Syntax for Array Declaration....186 8.2 Accessing Array Elements....186 8.3 Array Initialization Without Size....188 8.4 Array Initialization Using Loops....190 8.5 Strings as Array of Characters....195 8.6 Multidimensional Arrays....196 8.7 Passing an Array to a Function in C....200 Chapter 9: Functions....203 9.1 Introduction....203 9.2 Types of Functions....207 9.3 Passing Parameters to Functions....208 9.4 Returning More Than One Value....210 9.5 Recursive Functions....212 9.6 Nested Functions....215 Chapter 10: Pointers....217 10.1 Definition....217 10.2 Address of a Variable....217 10.3 NULL Pointer....225 10.4 Void Pointer....225 10.5 Types of Pointers....231 10.5.1 Pointer to a Constant Value....231 10.5.2 Pointer to a Constant Address (Constant Pointer)....233 10.5.3 Constant Pointer to a Constant Value....234 10.6 Function Pointers....234 10.6.1 Functions Returning Pointers....238 10.7 Pointers and Arrays....240 10.8 Multiple Pointers....247 10.9 Heap Stack and Code Memories....249 10.10 Dynamic Memory Allocation....250 10.10.1 malloc() Function....251 10.10.2 calloc() Function....255 10.10.3 free() Function....256 10.10.4 realloc() Function....257 10.11 Memory Functions....258 10.11.1 Memset Function....258 10.11.2 Memcpy Function....259 10.11.3 Memmove Function....260 10.11.4 Memcmp Function....261 Chapter 11: Directives and Macros in C....268 11.1 Introduction....268 11.2 Preprocessor Directives as Macros....268 11.3 Macros as Functions....270 11.4 Multiline Macros....271 11.5 Directives Used for File Inclusion....274 11.6 Predefined Macros....276 11.7 Conditional Compilation....279 11.8 Concatenation Operator ##....283 Chapter 12: Type Qualifiers, Enumerations, and Storage Classes in C....286 12.1 Type Qualifiers in C....286 12.1.1 Const....286 12.1.2 Restrict....288 12.1.3 Volatile....288 12.2 Storage Classes in C....289 12.2.1 Auto....289 12.2.2 Extern....289 12.2.3 Static....292 12.2.4 Register....293 Chapter 13: Integer with Exactly N Bits....297 13.1 General Form of Fixed Width Integers....297 13.2 Macros for printf and scanf....297 13.3 uintN_t....301 13.4 int_leastN_t....303 13.5 uint_leastN_t....304 13.6 int_fastN_t....304 13.7 uint_fastN_t....305 13.8 Macros for printf....306 13.9 Macros for scanf....306 Chapter 14: Signals in C....310 14.1 Introduction....310 14.2 Signal Handling....311 14.3 SIGINT....311 14.4 SIGQUIT....315 14.5 Artificial Signal Generation....317 14.6 Some of the Most Used Signals....318 Chapter 15: Threads in C....320 15.1 Introduction....320 15.2 Thread Creation....320 15.3 Parallel Processing Using Threads....321 15.4 pthread_exit() Function....328 15.5 pthread_join() Function....330 15.6 pthread_self() Function....336 15.7 pthread_equal() Function....337 15.8 pthread_cancel() Function....338 15.9 pthread_detach() Function....338 15.10 Synchronizing Threads with Mutexes....339 Chapter 16: Atomic Data Types....349 16.1 How to Define an Atomic Data Type?....349 16.2 Atomic Integer Types....350 16.3 Atomic Pointers....352 16.4 Race Prevention by Atomic Variables....353 16.5 Lock-Free Atomic Types....358 16.6 Atomic Assignments, Operators, and Functions....359 16.7 Atomic Functions....360 16.7.1 atomic_is_lock_free() Function....360 16.7.2 atomic_fetch_key() Function....360 16.7.3 atomic_store() Function....363 16.7.4 atomic_load() Function....364 16.7.5 atomic_exchange() Function....365 16.7.6 Comparison Functions....366 16.7.7 atomic_flag Macro....368 16.7.8 atomic_init() Function....369 16.8 Memory Order in C....370 16.8.1 Acquire, Release, and Consume....370 16.8.2 Memory Order....371 16.8.3 Atomic Functions with Memory Order....373 Chapter 17: File Operations in C....375 17.1 File Types....375 17.2 File Operations....375 17.2.1 Opening a File....375 17.2.2 Closing a File....376 17.2.3 Reading and Writing of a Text File....377 17.2.3.1 Writing to a Text File....377 17.2.3.2 Reading a Text File....381 17.2.4 Reading and Writing of a Binary File....385 17.2.4.1 Writing to Binary Files....386 17.2.4.2 Reading Binary Files....387 Bibliography....393 Index....394