Programming Rust: Fast, Safe Systems Development. 2 Ed

Preface....5 Who Should Read This Book....6 Why We Wrote This Book....7 Navigating This Book....7 Conventions Used in This Book....8 Using Code Examples....9 O’Reilly Online Learning....10 How to Contact Us....10 Acknowledgments....11 1. Systems Programmers Can Have Nice Things....13 Rust Shoulders the Load for You....15 Parallel Programming Is Tamed....16 And Yet Rust Is Still Fast....17 Rust Makes Collaboration Easier....18 2. A Tour of Rust....20 rustup and Cargo....21 Rust Functions....25 Writing and Running Unit Tests....27 Handling Command-Line Arguments....28 Serving Pages to the Web....35 Concurrency....43 What the Mandelbrot Set Actually Is....45 Parsing Pair Command-Line Arguments....51 Mapping from Pixels to Complex Numbers....55 Plotting the Set....57 Writing Image Files....58 A Concurrent Mandelbrot Program....61 Running the Mandelbrot Plotter....68 Safety Is Invisible....69 Filesystems and Command-Line Tools....70 The Command-Line Interface....72 Reading and Writing Files....75 Find and Replace....76 3. Fundamental Types....80 Fixed-Width Numeric Types....85 Integer Types....85 Checked, Wrapping, Saturating, and Overflowing Arithmetic....91 Floating-Point Types....94 The bool Type....97 Characters....98 Tuples....101 Pointer Types....104 References....105 Boxes....106 Raw Pointers....106 Arrays, Vectors, and Slices....107 Arrays....108 Vectors....110 Slices....114 String Types....116 String Literals....116 Byte Strings....118 Strings in Memory....119 String....121 Using Strings....123 Other String-Like Types....124 Type Aliases....124 Beyond the Basics....125 4. Ownership and Moves....126 Ownership....129 Moves....136 More Operations That Move....144 Moves and Control Flow....146 Moves and Indexed Content....147 Copy Types: The Exception to Moves....150 Rc and Arc: Shared Ownership....155 5. References....160 References to Values....161 Working with References....166 Rust References Versus C++ References....166 Assigning References....168 References to References....169 Comparing References....170 References Are Never Null....171 Borrowing References to Arbitrary Expressions....171 References to Slices and Trait Objects....172 Reference Safety....173 Borrowing a Local Variable....174 Receiving References as Function Arguments....179 Passing References to Functions....182 Returning References....183 Structs Containing References....185 Distinct Lifetime Parameters....189 Omitting Lifetime Parameters....191 Sharing Versus Mutation....193 Taking Arms Against a Sea of Objects....205 6. Expressions....208 An Expression Language....208 Precedence and Associativity....210 Blocks and Semicolons....213 Declarations....215 if and match....218 if let....221 Loops....222 Control Flow in Loops....224 return Expressions....226 Why Rust Has loop....227 Function and Method Calls....230 Fields and Elements....232 Reference Operators....234 Arithmetic, Bitwise, Comparison, and Logical Operators....235 Assignment....236 Type Casts....237 Closures....239 Onward....240 7. Error Handling....241 Panic....241 Unwinding....242 Aborting....244 Result....245 Catching Errors....246 Result Type Aliases....249 Printing Errors....250 Propagating Errors....252 Working with Multiple Error Types....254 Dealing with Errors That “Can’t Happen”....257 Ignoring Errors....259 Handling Errors in main()....260 Declaring a Custom Error Type....262 Why Results?....263 8. Crates and Modules....266 Crates....267 Editions....271 Build Profiles....273 Modules....274 Nested Modules....276 Modules in Separate Files....277 Paths and Imports....280 The Standard Prelude....285 Making use Declarations pub....286 Making Struct Fields pub....286 Statics and Constants....287 Turning a Program into a Library....288 The src/bin Directory....290 Attributes....292 Tests and Documentation....296 Integration Tests....300 Documentation....301 Doc-Tests....305 Specifying Dependencies....309 Versions....310 Cargo.lock....312 Publishing Crates to crates.io....313 Workspaces....316 More Nice Things....318 9. Structs....319 Named-Field Structs....319 Tuple-Like Structs....323 Unit-Like Structs....325 Struct Layout....325 Defining Methods with impl....327 Passing Self as a Box, Rc, or Arc....330 Type-Associated Functions....333 Associated Consts....335 Generic Structs....336 Structs with Lifetime Parameters....340 Deriving Common Traits for Struct Types....341 Interior Mutability....343 10. Enums and Patterns....349 Enums....350 Enums with Data....354 Enums in Memory....355 Rich Data Structures Using Enums....356 Generic Enums....359 Patterns....363 Literals, Variables, and Wildcards in Patterns....368 Tuple and Struct Patterns....369 Array and Slice Patterns....371 Reference Patterns....372 Match Guards....375 Matching Multiple Possibilities....376 Binding with @ Patterns....377 Where Patterns Are Allowed....378 Populating a Binary Tree....380 The Big Picture....382 11. Traits and Generics....384 Using Traits....387 Trait Objects....389 Generic Functions and Type Parameters....392 Which to Use....397 Defining and Implementing Traits....401 Default Methods....402 Traits and Other People’s Types....404 Self in Traits....406 Subtraits....408 Type-Associated Functions....409 Fully Qualified Method Calls....411 Traits That Define Relationships Between Types....414 Associated Types (or How Iterators Work)....415 Generic Traits (or How Operator Overloading Works)....420 impl Trait....421 Associated Consts....424 Reverse-Engineering Bounds....426 Traits as a Foundation....431 12. Operator Overloading....432 Arithmetic and Bitwise Operators....434 Unary Operators....436 Binary Operators....438 Compound Assignment Operators....439 Equivalence Comparisons....441 Ordered Comparisons....446 Index and IndexMut....450 Other Operators....454 13. Utility Traits....456 Drop....458 Sized....463 Clone....467 Copy....469 Deref and DerefMut....470 Default....475 AsRef and AsMut....478 Borrow and BorrowMut....480 From and Into....483 TryFrom and TryInto....488 ToOwned....490 Borrow and ToOwned at Work: The Humble Cow....491 14. Closures....494 Capturing Variables....496 Closures That Borrow....497 Closures That Steal....498 Function and Closure Types....500 Closure Performance....504 Closures and Safety....506 Closures That Kill....506 FnOnce....507 FnMut....510 Copy and Clone for Closures....513 Callbacks....515 Using Closures Effectively....521 15. Iterators....524 The Iterator and IntoIterator Traits....526 Creating Iterators....528 iter and iter_mut Methods....529 IntoIterator Implementations....530 from_fn and successors....533 drain Methods....536 Other Iterator Sources....536 Iterator Adapters....539 map and filter....540 filter_map and flat_map....543 flatten....547 take and take_while....549 skip and skip_while....550 peekable....552 fuse....553 Reversible Iterators and rev....554 inspect....556 chain....557 enumerate....558 zip....559 by_ref....560 cloned, copied....562 cycle....563 Consuming Iterators....564 Simple Accumulation: count, sum, product....564 max, min....565 max_by, min_by....566 max_by_key, min_by_key....567 Comparing Item Sequences....568 any and all....569 position, rposition, and ExactSizeIterator....569 fold and rfold....570 try_fold and try_rfold....572 nth, nth_back....574 last....574 find, rfind, and find_map....575 Building Collections: collect and FromIterator....576 The Extend Trait....579 partition....580 for_each and try_for_each....581 Implementing Your Own Iterators....582 16. Collections....590 Overview....591 Vec....594 Accessing Elements....595 Iteration....598 Growing and Shrinking Vectors....598 Joining....605 Splitting....606 Swapping....611 Sorting and Searching....611 Comparing Slices....614 Random Elements....615 Rust Rules Out Invalidation Errors....616 VecDeque....618 BinaryHeap....621 HashMap and BTreeMap....624 Entries....630 Map Iteration....634 HashSet and BTreeSet....635 Set Iteration....637 When Equal Values Are Different....637 Whole-Set Operations....638 Hashing....641 Using a Custom Hashing Algorithm....643 Beyond the Standard Collections....645 17. Strings and Text....646 Some Unicode Background....647 ASCII, Latin-1, and Unicode....647 UTF-8....648 Text Directionality....650 Characters (char)....651 Classifying Characters....651 Handling Digits....654 Case Conversion for Characters....655 Conversions to and from Integers....657 String and str....657 Creating String Values....659 Simple Inspection....661 Appending and Inserting Text....662 Removing and Replacing Text....665 Conventions for Searching and Iterating....667 Patterns for Searching Text....668 Searching and Replacing....669 Iterating over Text....671 Trimming....675 Case Conversion for Strings....676 Parsing Other Types from Strings....676 Converting Other Types to Strings....677 Borrowing as Other Text-Like Types....679 Accessing Text as UTF-8....680 Producing Text from UTF-8 Data....681 Putting Off Allocation....683 Strings as Generic Collections....686 Formatting Values....687 Formatting Text Values....689 Formatting Numbers....691 Formatting Other Types....694 Formatting Values for Debugging....695 Formatting Pointers for Debugging....697 Referring to Arguments by Index or Name....698 Dynamic Widths and Precisions....699 Formatting Your Own Types....700 Using the Formatting Language in Your Own Code....704 Regular Expressions....706 Basic Regex Use....706 Building Regex Values Lazily....708 Normalization....709 Normalization Forms....711 The unicode-normalization Crate....713 18. Input and Output....715 Readers and Writers....716 Readers....718 Buffered Readers....721 Reading Lines....723 Collecting Lines....727 Writers....728 Files....730 Seeking....731 Other Reader and Writer Types....732 Binary Data, Compression, and Serialization....735 Files and Directories....738 OsStr and Path....738 Path and PathBuf Methods....740 Filesystem Access Functions....745 Reading Directories....747 Platform-Specific Features....749 Networking....751 19. Concurrency....755 Fork-Join Parallelism....757 spawn and join....760 Error Handling Across Threads....763 Sharing Immutable Data Across Threads....765 Rayon....768 Revisiting the Mandelbrot Set....771 Channels....774 Sending Values....776 Receiving Values....782 Running the Pipeline....783 Channel Features and Performance....786 Thread Safety: Send and Sync....789 Piping Almost Any Iterator to a Channel....793 Beyond Pipelines....795 Shared Mutable State....796 What Is a Mutex?....797 Mutex....799 mut and Mutex....802 Why Mutexes Are Not Always a Good Idea....803 Deadlock....805 Poisoned Mutexes....806 Multiconsumer Channels Using Mutexes....806 Read/Write Locks (RwLock)....808 Condition Variables (Condvar)....810 Atomics....811 Global Variables....815 What Hacking Concurrent Code in Rust Is Like....819 20. Asynchronous Programming....820 From Synchronous to Asynchronous....823 Futures....825 Async Functions and Await Expressions....828 Calling Async Functions from Synchronous Code: block_on....832 Spawning Async Tasks....836 Async Blocks....842 Building Async Functions from Async Blocks....845 Spawning Async Tasks on a Thread Pool....847 But Does Your Future Implement Send?....848 Long Running Computations: yield_now and spawn_blocking....852 Comparing Asynchronous Designs....854 A Real Asynchronous HTTP Client....855 An Asynchronous Client and Server....857 Error and Result Types....860 The Protocol....861 Taking User Input: Asynchronous Streams....863 Sending Packets....866 Receiving Packets: More Asynchronous Streams....868 The Client’s Main Function....870 The Server’s Main Function....872 Handling Chat Connections: Async Mutexes....874 The Group Table: Synchronous Mutexes....877 Chat Groups: tokio’s Broadcast Channels....879 Primitive Futures and Executors: When Is a Future Worth Polling Again?....884 Invoking Wakers: spawn_blocking....887 Implementing block_on....890 Pinning....892 The Two Life Stages of a Future....892 Pinned Pointers....898 The Unpin Trait....901 When Is Asynchronous Code Helpful?....902 21. Macros....907 Macro Basics....909 Basics of Macro Expansion....911 Unintended Consequences....913 Repetition....916 Built-In Macros....919 Debugging Macros....923 Building the json! Macro....924 Fragment Types....926 Recursion in Macros....931 Using Traits with Macros....932 Scoping and Hygiene....935 Importing and Exporting Macros....939 Avoiding Syntax Errors During Matching....942 Beyond macro_rules!....943 22. Unsafe Code....946 Unsafe from What?....947 Unsafe Blocks....950 Example: An Efficient ASCII String Type....952 Unsafe Functions....955 Unsafe Block or Unsafe Function?....959 Undefined Behavior....959 Unsafe Traits....963 Raw Pointers....967 Dereferencing Raw Pointers Safely....971 Example: RefWithFlag....972 Nullable Pointers....976 Type Sizes and Alignments....977 Pointer Arithmetic....978 Moving into and out of Memory....980 Example: GapBuffer....987 Panic Safety in Unsafe Code....996 Reinterpreting Memory with Unions....997 Matching Unions....1001 Borrowing Unions....1001 23. Foreign Functions....1003 Finding Common Data Representations....1004 Declaring Foreign Functions and Variables....1010 Using Functions from Libraries....1013 A Raw Interface to libgit2....1018 A Safe Interface to libgit2....1027 Conclusion....1042 Index....1044