Microelectronic Circuit Design. 6 Ed

Cover....1 Title Page....4 Copyright Page....5 Dedications....6 Brief Contents....7 Contents....8 Preface....21 Chapter-by-Chapter Summary....24 PART ONE SOLID-STATE ELECTRONICS AND DEVICES....30 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS....32 1.1 A Brief History of Electronics: From Vacuum Tubes to Giga-Scale Integration....33 1.2 Classification of Electronic Signals....37 1.2.1 Digital Signals....37 1.2.2 Analog Signals....38 1.2.3 A/D and D/A Converters—Bridging the Analog and Digital Domains....39 1.3 Notational Conventions....41 1.4 Problem-Solving Approach....42 1.5 Important Concepts from Circuit Theory....44 1.5.1 Voltage and Current Division....44 1.5.2 Thévenin and Norton Circuit Representations....45 1.6 Frequency Spectrum of Electronic Signals....50 1.7 Amplifiers....51 1.7.1 Ideal Operational Amplifiers....52 1.7.2 Amplifier Frequency Response....55 1.8 Element Variations in Circuit Design....55 1.8.1 Mathematical Modeling of Tolerances....56 1.8.2 Worst-Case Analysis....56 1.8.3 Monte Carlo Analysis....58 1.8.4 Temperature Coefficients....61 1.9 Numeric Precision....63 Summary....63 Key Terms....64 References....65 Additional Reading....65 Problems....66 CHAPTER 2 SOLID-STATE ELECTRONICS....71 2.1 Solid-State Electronic Materials....73 2.2 Covalent Bond Model....74 2.3 Drift Currents and Mobility in Semiconductors....77 2.3.1 Drift Currents....77 2.3.2 Mobility....78 2.3.3 Velocity Saturation....78 2.4 Resistivity of Intrinsic Silicon....79 2.5 Impurities in Semiconductors....80 2.5.1 Donor Impurities in Silicon....81 2.5.2 Acceptor Impurities in Silicon....81 2.6 Electron and Hole Concentrations in Doped Semiconductors....81 2.6.1 n-Type Material (ND > NA)....82 2.6.2 p-Type Material (NA > ND)....83 2.7 Mobility and Resistivity in Doped Semiconductors....84 2.8 Diffusion Currents....88 2.9 Total Current....89 2.10 Energy Band Model....90 2.10.1 Electron—Hole Pair Generation in an Intrinsic Semiconductor....90 2.10.2 Energy Band Model for a Doped Semiconductor....91 2.10.3 Compensated Semiconductors....91 2.11 Overview of Integrated Circuit Fabrication....93 Summary....96 Key Terms....97 Additional Reading....98 Problems....98 CHAPTER 3 SOLID-STATE DIODES AND DIODE CIRCUITS....102 3.1 The pn Junction Diode....103 3.1.1 pn Junction Electrostatics....103 3.1.2 Internal Diode Currents....107 3.2 The i-v Characteristics of the Diode....108 3.3 The Diode Equation: A Mathematical Model for the Diode....110 3.4 Diode Characteristics Under Reverse, Zero, and Forward Bias....113 3.4.1 Reverse Bias....113 3.4.2 Zero Bias....113 3.4.3 Forward Bias....114 3.5 Diode Temperature Coefficient....116 3.6 Diodes Under Reverse Bias....116 3.6.1 Saturation Current in Real Diodes....117 3.6.2 Reverse Breakdown....119 3.6.3 Diode Model for the Breakdown Region....120 3.7 pn Junction Capacitance....120 3.7.1 Reverse Bias....120 3.7.2 Forward Bias....121 3.8 Schottky Barrier Diode....122 3.9 SPICE Model and Layout for a Diode....122 3.9.1 Diode Layout....124 3.10 Diode Circuit Analysis....125 3.10.1 Load-Line Analysis....126 3.10.2 Analysis Using the Mathematical Model for the Diode....127 3.10.3 The Ideal Diode Model....131 3.10.4 Constant Voltage Drop Model....133 3.10.5 Model Comparison and Discussion....134 3.11 Multiple-Diode Circuits....135 3.12 Analysis of Diodes Operating in the Breakdown Region....138 3.12.1 Load-Line Analysis....138 3.12.2 Analysis with the Piecewise Linear Model....138 3.12.3 Voltage Regulation....139 3.12.4 Analysis Including Zener Resistance....140 3.12.5 Line and Load Regulation....141 3.13 Half-Wave Rectifier Circuits....142 3.13.1 Half-Wave Rectifier with Resistor Load....142 3.13.2 Rectifier Filter Capacitor....143 3.13.3 Half-Wave Rectifier with RC Load....144 3.13.4 Ripple Voltage and Conduction Interval....145 3.13.5 Diode Current....147 3.13.6 Surge Current....148 3.13.7 Peak-Inverse-Voltage (PIV) Rating....149 3.13.8 Diode Power Dissipation....150 3.13.9 Half-Wave Rectifier with Negative Output Voltage....150 3.14 Full-Wave Rectifier Circuits....152 3.14.1 Full-Wave Rectifier with Negative Output Voltage....153 3.15 Full-Wave Bridge Rectification....153 3.16 Rectifier Comparison and Design Tradeoffs....154 3.17 Dynamic Switching Behavior of the Diode....158 3.18 Photo Diodes, Solar Cells, and Light-Emitting Diodes....159 3.18.1 Photo Diodes and Photodetectors....159 3.18.2 Power Generation from Solar Cells....160 3.18.3 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)....161 Summary....162 Key Terms....163 Reference....164 Additional Reading....164 Problems....164 CHAPTER 4 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS....175 4.1 Physical Structure of the Bipolar Transistor....176 4.2 The Transport Model for the npn Transistor....177 4.2.1 Forward Characteristics....178 4.2.2 Reverse Characteristics....180 4.2.3 Complete Transport Model Equations for Arbitrary Bias Conditions....181 4.3 The pnp Transistor....183 4.4 Equivalent Circuit Representations for the Transport Models....185 4.4.1 Another Look at the Forward-Active Region....186 4.5 The i-v Characteristics of the Bipolar Transistor....186 4.5.1 Output Characteristics....186 4.5.2 Transfer Characteristics....187 4.6 The Operating Regions of the Bipolar Transistor....188 4.7 Transport Model Simplifications....189 4.7.1 Simplified Model for the Cutoff Region....189 4.7.2 Model Simplifications for the Forward-Active Region....191 4.7.3 Diodes in Bipolar Integrated Circuits....197 4.7.4 Simplified Model for the Reverse-Active Region....198 4.7.5 Modeling Operation in the Saturation Region....201 4.8 Nonideal Behavior of the Bipolar Transistor....204 4.8.1 Junction Breakdown Voltages....204 4.8.2 Minority-Carrier Transport in the Base Region....204 4.8.3 Base Transit Time....205 4.8.4 Diffusion Capacitance....207 4.8.5 Frequency Dependence of the Common-Emitter Current Gain....208 4.8.6 The Early Effect and Early Voltage....208 4.8.7 Modeling the Early Effect....209 4.8.8 Origin of the Early Effect....209 4.9 Transconductance....210 4.10 Bipolar Technology and SPICE Model....211 4.10.1 Qualitative Description....211 4.10.2 Spice Model Equations....212 4.10.3 High-Performance Bipolar Transistors....214 4.11 Practical Bias Circuits for the BJT....214 4.11.1 Four-Resistor Bias Network....216 4.11.2 Design Objectives for the Four-Resistor Bias Network....218 4.11.3 Iterative Analysis of the Four-Resistor Bias Circuit....222 4.12 Tolerances in Bias Circuits....223 4.12.1 Worst-Case Analysis....223 4.12.2 Monte Carlo Analysis....225 Summary....228 Key Terms....230 References....231 Additional Readings....231 Problems....231 CHAPTER 5 FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS....241 5.1 Characteristics of the MOS Capacitor....243 5.1.1 Accumulation Region....243 5.1.2 Depletion Region....243 5.1.3 Inversion Region....244 5.2 The NMOS Transistor....245 5.2.1 Qualitative i-v Behavior of the NMOS Transistor....246 5.2.2 Triode Region Characteristics of the NMOS Transistor....247 5.2.3 On Resistance....249 5.2.4 Transconductance....251 5.2.5 Saturation of the i-v Characteristics....251 5.2.6 Mathematical Model in the Saturation (Pinch-Off) Region....253 5.2.7 Transconductance in Saturation....254 5.2.8 Transconductance Efficiency in Saturation....254 5.2.9 Channel-Length Modulation....255 5.2.10 Transfer Characteristics and Depletion-Mode MOSFETs....256 5.2.11 Body Effect or Substrate Sensitivity....257 5.3 PMOS Transistors....259 5.4 MOSFET Circuit Symbols....261 5.5 MOS Transistor Symmetry....262 5.5.1 The One-Transistor Dram Cell....262 5.5.2 Data Storage in the 1-T Cell....263 5.5.3 Reading Data from the 1-T Cell....264 5.6 CMOS Technology....267 5.6.1 CMOS Voltage Transfer Characteristics....269 5.7 CMOS Latchup....271 5.8 Capacitances in MOS Transistors....273 5.8.1 NMOS Transistor Capacitances in the Triode Region....273 5.8.2 Capacitances in the Saturation Region....276 5.8.3 Capacitances in Cutoff....276 5.9 MOSFET Modeling in SPICE....276 5.10 MOS Transistor Scaling....278 5.10.1 Drain Current....279 5.10.2 Gate Capacitance....279 5.10.3 Circuit and Power Densities....279 5.10.4 Power-Delay Product....280 5.10.5 Cutoff Frequency....280 5.10.6 High Field Limitations....281 5.10.7 The Unified MOS Transistor Model, Including High Field Limitations....282 5.10.8 Subthreshold Conduction....283 5.11 All Region Modeling....284 5.11.1 Interpolation Model....284 5.11.2 Interpolation Model in the Saturation Region....284 5.11.3 Transconductance Efficiency....285 5.12 MOS Transistor Fabrication and Layout Design Rules....287 5.12.1 Minimum Feature Size and Alignment Tolerance....287 5.12.2 MOS Transistor Layout....288 5.12.3 CMOS Inverter Layout....290 5.13 Advanced CMOS Technologies....291 5.14 Biasing the NMOS Field-Effect Transistor....294 5.14.1 Why Do We Need Bias....294 5.14.2 Four-Resistor Biasing....296 5.14.3 Constant Gate-Source Voltage Bias....300 5.14.4 Graphical Analysis for the Q-Point....300 5.14.5 Analysis Including Body Effect....301 5.14.6 Analysis Using the Unified Model....303 5.14.7 NMOS Circuit Analysis Comparisons....305 5.14.8 Two-Resistor Bias....305 5.15 Biasing the PMOS Field-Effect Transistor....305 5.16 Biasing the CMOS Inverter as an Amplifier....308 5.17 The CMOS Transmission Gate....309 5.18 The Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET....311 5.18.1 The JFET with Bias Applied....312 5.18.2 JFET Channel with Drain-Source Bias....312 5.18.3 n-Channel JFET i-v Characteristics....314 5.18.4 The p-Channel JFET....315 5.18.5 Circuit Symbols and JFET Model Summary....315 5.18.6 JFET Capacitances....316 5.19 JFET Modeling in SPICE....317 5.20 Biasing the JFET and Depletion- Mode MOSFET....318 Summary....320 Key Terms....322 References....323 Additional Readings....324 Problems....325 PART TWO ANALOG ELECTRONICS....340 CHAPTER 6 INTRODUCTION TO AMPLIFIERS....342 6.1 An Example of an Analog Electronic System....343 6.2 Amplification....344 6.2.1 Voltage Gain....345 6.2.2 Current Gain....346 6.2.3 Power Gain....346 6.2.4 Location of the Amplifier....346 6.2.5 The Decibel Scale....347 6.3 Two-Port Models for Amplifiers....350 6.3.1 The g-Parameters....350 6.4 Mismatched Source and Load Resistances....354 6.5 The Differential Amplifier....357 6.5.1 Differential Amplifier Voltage Transfer Characteristic....358 6.5.2 Voltage Gain....358 6.6 Distortion in Amplifiers....360 6.7 Differential Amplifier Model....361 6.8 Amplifier Frequency Response....363 6.8.1 Bode Plots....363 6.8.2 The Low-Pass Amplifier....364 6.8.3 The High-Pass Amplifier....367 6.8.4 Band-Pass Amplifiers....370 Summary....373 Key Terms....374 References....374 Additional Reading....374 Problems....374 CHAPTER 7 THE TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER....381 7.1 The Transistor as an Amplifier....382 7.1.1 The BJT Amplifier....383 7.1.2 The MOSFET Amplifier....384 7.2 Coupling and Bypass Capacitors....385 7.3 Circuit Analysis Using dc and ac Equivalent Circuits....387 7.3.1 Menu for dc and ac Analysis....387 7.4 Introduction to Small-Signal Modeling....391 7.4.1 Graphical Interpretation of the Small- Signal Behavior of the Diode....391 7.4.2 Small-Signal Modeling of the Diode....392 7.5 Small-Signal Models for Bipolar Junction Transistors....394 7.5.1 The Hybrid-Pi Model....396 7.5.2 Graphical Interpretation of the Transconductance....397 7.5.3 Small-Signal Current Gain....397 7.5.4 The Intrinsic Voltage Gain of the BJT....398 7.5.5 Equivalent Forms of the Small-Signal Model....399 7.5.6 Simplified Hybrid-Pi Model....400 7.5.7 Definition of a Small Signal for the Bipolar Transistor....400 7.5.8 Small-Signal Model for the pnp Transistor....402 7.5.9 ac Analysis versus Transient Analysis in SPICE....403 7.6 The Common-Emitter (C-E) Amplifier....403 7.6.1 Terminal Voltage Gain....403 7.6.2 Input Resistance....405 7.6.3 Signal Source Voltage Gain....405 7.7 Important Limits and Model Simplifications....405 7.7.1 A Design Guide for the Common-Emitter Amplifier....406 7.7.2 Upper Bound on the Common-Emitter Gain....407 7.7.3 Small-Signal Limit for the Common-Emitter Amplifier....407 7.8 Small-Signal Models for Field-Effect Transistors....410 7.8.1 Small-Signal Model for the MOSFET....410 7.8.2 Intrinsic Voltage Gain of the MOSFET....412 7.8.3 Definition of Small-Signal Operation for the MOSFET....413 7.8.4 Body Effect in the Four-Terminal MOSFET....414 7.8.5 Small-Signal Model for the PMOS Transistor....415 7.8.6 Small-Signal Modeling for MOS Transistors in Weak Inversion....416 7.8.7 Small-Signal Model for the Junction Field-Effect Transistor....416 7.9 Summary and Comparison of the Small-Signal Models of the BJT and FET....417 7.10 The Common-Source (C-S) Amplifier....420 7.10.1 Common-Source Terminal Voltage Gain....421 7.10.2 Signal Source Voltage Gain for the Common-Source Amplifier....421 7.10.3 A Design Guide for the Common-Source Amplifier....422 7.10.4 Small-Signal Limit for the Common- Source Amplifier....423 7.10.5 Input Resistances of the Common- Emitter and Common-Source Amplifiers....425 7.10.6 Common-Emitter and Common-Source Output Resistances....427 7.10.7 Comparison of the Three Amplifier Examples....433 7.11 Common-Emitter and Common-Source Amplifier Summary....434 7.11.1 Guidelines for Neglecting the Transistor Output Resistance....434 7.12 Amplifier Power and Signal Range....435 7.12.1 Power Dissipation....435 7.12.2 Signal Range....436 Summary....439 Key Terms....440 Reference....440 Problems....441 CHAPTER 8 TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER BUILDING BLOCKS....453 8.1 Amplifier Classification....454 8.1.1 Signal Injection and Extraction—The BJT....454 8.1.2 Signal Injection and Extraction—The FET....455 8.1.3 Common-Emitter (C-E) and Common-Source (C-S) Amplifiers....456 8.1.4 Common-Collector (C-C) and Common-Drain (C-D) Topologies....457 8.1.5 Common-Base (C-B) and Common-Gate (C-G) Amplifiers....459 8.1.6 Small-Signal Model Review....460 8.2 Inverting Amplifiers—Common-Emitter and Common-Source Circuits....460 8.2.1 The Common-Emitter (C-E) Amplifier....461 8.2.2 Common-Emitter Example Comparison....473 8.2.3 The Common-Source Amplifier....474 8.2.4 Small-Signal Limit for the Common-Source Amplifier....477 8.2.5 Common-Emitter and Common-Source Amplifier Characteristics....481 8.2.6 C-E/C-S Amplifier Summary....482 8.2.7 Equivalent Transistor Representation of the Generalized C-E/C-S Transistor....482 8.3 Follower Circuits—Common-Collector and Common-Drain Amplifiers....483 8.3.1 Terminal Voltage Gain....485 8.3.2 Input Resistance....486 8.3.3 Signal Source Voltage Gain....486 8.3.4 Follower Signal Range....487 8.3.5 Follower Output Resistance....487 8.3.6 Current Gain....489 8.3.7 C-C/C-D Amplifier Summary....489 8.4 Noninverting Amplifiers—Common-Base and Common-Gate Circuits....493 8.4.1 Terminal Voltage Gain and Input Resistance....495 8.4.2 Signal Source Voltage Gain....496 8.4.3 Input Signal Range....497 8.4.4 Resistance at the Collector and Drain Terminals....497 8.4.5 Current Gain....498 8.4.6 Overall Input and Output Resistances for the Noninverting Amplifiers....498 8.4.7 C-B/C-G Amplifier Summary....502 8.5 Amplifier Prototype Review and Comparison....503 8.5.1 The BJT Amplifiers....503 8.5.2 The FET Amplifiers....505 8.6 Common-Source Amplifiers Using MOS Transistor Loads....508 8.6.1 Voltage Gain Estimate....508 8.6.2 Detailed Analysis....509 8.6.3 Alternative Loads....510 8.6.4 Input and Output Resistances....511 8.7 Coupling and Bypass Capacitor Design....514 8.7.1 Common-Emitter and Common-Source Amplifiers....514 8.7.2 Common-Collector and Common-Drain Amplifiers....518 8.7.3 Common-Base and Common-Gate Amplifiers....521 8.7.4 Setting Lower Cutoff Frequency fL....524 8.8 Amplifier Design Examples....525 8.8.1 Monte Carlo Evaluation of the Common- Base Amplifier Design....534 8.9 Multistage ac-Coupled Amplifiers....539 8.9.1 A Three-Stage ac-Coupled Amplifier....540 8.9.2 Voltage Gain....542 8.9.3 Input Resistance....543 8.9.4 Signal Source Voltage Gain....543 8.9.5 Output Resistance....544 8.9.6 Current and Power Gain....545 8.9.7 Input Signal Range....545 8.9.8 Estimating the Lower Cutoff Frequency of the Multistage Amplifier....549 8.10 Introduction to dc-Coupled Amplifiers....549 8.10.1 A dc-Coupled Three-Stage Amplifier....551 8.10.2 Two Transistor dc-Coupled Amplifiers....552 Summary....554 Key Terms....556 Additional Reading....556 Problems....556 CHAPTER 9 AMPLIFIER FREQUENCY RESPONSE....573 9.1 Amplifier Frequency Response....574 9.1.1 Low-Frequency Response....575 9.1.2 Estimating ωL in the Absence of a Dominant Pole....575 9.1.3 High-Frequency Response....578 9.1.4 Estimating ωH in the Absence of a Dominant Pole....578 9.2 Direct Determination of the Low-Frequency Poles and Zeros—The Common-Source Amplifier....579 9.3 Estimation of ωL Using the Short-Circuit Time-Constant Method....584 9.3.1 Estimate of ωL for the Common-Emitter Amplifier....585 9.3.2 Estimate of ωL for the Common-Source Amplifier....589 9.3.3 Estimate of ωL for the Common-Base Amplifier....590 9.3.4 Estimate of ωL for the Common-Gate Amplifier....591 9.3.5 Estimate of ωL for the Common- Collector Amplifier....592 9.3.6 Estimate of ωL for the Common-Drain Amplifier....592 9.4 Transistor Models at High Frequencies....593 9.4.1 Frequency-Dependent Hybrid-Pi Model for the Bipolar Transistor....593 9.4.2 Modeling Cp and Cµ in SPICE....594 9.4.3 Unity-Gain Frequency fT....594 9.4.4 High-Frequency Model for the FET....597 9.4.5 Modeling C G S and C G D in SPICE....598 9.4.6 Channel Length Dependence of fT....598 9.4.7 Limitations of the High-Frequency Models....600 9.5 Base and Gate Resistances in the Small-Signal Models....600 9.5.1 Effect of Base and Gate Resistances on Midband Amplifiers....601 9.6 High-Frequency Common-Emitter and Common-Source Amplifier Analysis....602 9.6.1 The Miller Effect....604 9.6.2 Common-Emitter and Common- Source Amplifier High-Frequency Response....606 9.6.3 Direct Analysis of the Common-Emitter Transfer Characteristic....608 9.6.4 Poles of the Common-Emitter Amplifier....609 9.6.5 Dominant Pole for the Common-Source Amplifier....612 9.6.6 Estimation of . H Using the Open-Circuit Time-Constant Method....614 9.6.7 Common-Source Amplifier with Source Degeneration Resistance....615 9.6.8 Poles of the Common-Emitter with Emitter Degeneration Resistance....617 9.7 Common-Base and Common-Gate Amplifier High-Frequency Response....620 9.8 Common-Collector and Common-Drain Amplifier High-Frequency Response....622 9.9 Single-Stage Amplifier High-Frequency Response Summary....625 9.9.1 Amplifier Gain-Bandwidth (GBW) Limitations....625 9.10 Frequency Response of Multistage Amplifiers....626 9.10.1 Differential Amplifier....626 9.10.2 The Common-Collector/ Common-Base Cascade....628 9.10.3 High-Frequency Response of the Cascode Amplifier....629 9.10.4 Cutoff Frequency for the Current Mirror....630 9.10.5 Three-Stage Amplifier Example....631 9.11 Introduction to Radio Frequency Circuits....639 9.11.1 Radio Frequency Amplifiers....640 9.11.2 The Shunt-Peaked Amplifier....640 9.11.3 Single-Tuned Amplifier....642 9.11.4 Use of a Tapped Inductor—the Auto Transformer....644 9.11.5 Multiple Tuned Circuits—Synchronous and Stagger Tuning....646 9.11.6 Common-Source Amplifier with Inductive Degeneration....647 9.12 Mixers and Balanced Modulators....651 9.12.1 Introduction to Mixer Operation....651 9.12.2 A Single-Balanced Mixer....652 9.12.3 The Differential Pair as a Single-Balanced Mixer....653 9.12.4 A Double-Balanced Mixer....655 9.12.5 The Jones Mixer—a Double-Balanced Mixer/Modulator....657 Summary....661 Key Terms....662 References....662 Problems....663 PART THREE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS AND FEEDBACK....676 CHAPTER 10 IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS....678 10.1 Ideal Differential and Operational Amplifiers....679 10.1.1 Assumptions for Ideal Operational Amplifier Analysis....680 10.2 Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Operational Amplifiers....680 10.2.1 The Inverting Amplifier....681 10.2.2 The Transresistance Amplifier—a Current-to-Voltage Converter....684 10.2.3 The Noninverting Amplifier....686 10.2.4 The Unity-Gain Buffer, or Voltage Follower....688 10.2.5 The Summing Amplifier....691 10.2.6 The Difference Amplifier....693 10.3 Frequency Dependent Feedback....695 10.3.1 An Active Low-Pass Filter....696 10.3.2 An Active High-Pass Filter....699 10.3.3 The Integrator....700 10.3.4 The Differentiator....704 Summary....704 Key Terms....705 References....706 Additional Reading....706 Problems....706 CHAPTER 11 NONIDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS AND FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER STABILITY....712 11.1 Classic Feedback Systems....713 11.1.1 Closed-Loop Gain Analysis....714 11.1.2 Gain Error....714 11.2 Analysis of Circuits Containing Nonideal Operational Amplifiers....715 11.2.1 Finite Open-Loop Gain....715 11.2.2 Nonzero Output Resistance....718 11.2.3 Finite Input Resistance....722 11.2.4 Summary of Nonideal Inverting and Noninverting Amplifiers....726 11.3 Series and Shunt Feedback Circuits....727 11.3.1 Feedback Amplifier Categories....727 11.3.2 Voltage Amplifiers—Series-Shunt Feedback....728 11.3.3 Transimpedance Amplifiers—Shunt-Shunt Feedback....728 11.3.4 Current Amplifiers—Shunt-Series Feedback....728 11.3.5 Transconductance Amplifiers—Series-Series Feedback....728 11.4 Unified Approach to Feedback Amplifier Gain Calculations....728 11.4.1 Closed-Loop Gain Analysis....729 11.4.2 Resistance Calculations Using Blackman’s Theorem....729 11.5 Series-Shunt Feedback—Voltage Amplifiers....729 11.5.1 Closed-Loop Gain Calculation....730 11.5.2 Input Resistance Calculations....730 11.5.3 Output Resistance Calculations....731 11.5.4 Series-Shunt Feedback Amplifier Summary....732 11.6 Shunt-Shunt Feedback—Transresistance Amplifiers....736 11.6.1 Closed-Loop Gain Calculation....736 11.6.2 Input Resistance Calculations....737 11.6.3 Output Resistance Calculations....737 11.6.4 Shunt-Shunt Feedback Amplifier Summary....738 11.7 Series-Series Feedback—Transconductance Amplifiers....741 11.7.1 Closed-Loop Gain Calculation....742 11.7.2 Input Resistance Calculation....742 11.7.3 Output Resistance Calculation....743 11.7.4 Series-Series Feedback Amplifier Summary....743 11.8 Shunt-Series Feedback—Current Amplifiers....745 11.8.1 Closed-Loop Gain Calculation....746 11.8.2 Input Resistance Calculation....746 11.8.3 Output Resistance Calculation....747 11.8.4 Shunt-Series Feedback Amplifier Summary....747 11.9 Finding the Loop Gain Using Successive Voltage and Current Injection....750 11.9.1 Simplifications....753 11.10 Distortion Reduction through the Use of Feedback....753 11.11 DC Error Sources and Output Range Limitations....754 11.11.1 Input-Offset Voltage....754 11.11.2 Offset-Voltage Adjustment....756 11.11.3 Input-Bias and Offset Currents....757 11.11.4 Output Voltage and Current Limits....759 11.12 Common-Mode Rejection and Input Resistance....762 11.12.1 Finite Common-Mode Rejection Ratio....762 11.12.2 Why Is CMRR Important....763 11.12.3 Voltage-Follower Gain Error Due to CMRR....766 11.12.4 Common-Mode Input Resistance....769 11.12.5 An Alternate Interpretation of CMRR....770 11.12.6 Power Supply Rejection Ratio....770 11.13 Frequency Response and Bandwidth of Operational Amplifiers....772 11.13.1 Frequency Response of the Noninverting Amplifier....774 11.13.2 Inverting Amplifier Frequency Response....777 11.13.3 Using Feedback to Control Frequency Response....779 11.13.4 Large-Signal Limitations—Slew Rate and Full-Power Bandwidth....781 11.13.5 Macro Model for Operational Amplifier Frequency Response....782 11.13.6 Complete Op Amp Macro Models in SPICE....783 11.13.7 Examples of Commercial General-Purpose Operational Amplifiers....783 11.14 Stability of Feedback Amplifiers....784 11.14.1 The Nyquist Plot....784 11.14.2 First-Order Systems....785 11.14.3 Second-Order Systems and Phase Margin....786 11.14.4 Step Response and Phase Margin....787 11.14.5 Third-Order Systems and Gain Margin....790 11.14.6 Determining Stability from the Bode Plot....791 Summary....795 Key Terms....797 References....798 Problems....798 CHAPTER 12 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER APPLICATIONS....810 12.1 Cascaded Amplifiers....811 12.1.1 Two-Port Representations....811 12.1.2 Amplifier Terminology Review....813 12.1.3 Frequency Response of Cascaded Amplifiers....816 12.2 The Instrumentation Amplifier....824 12.3 Active Filters....827 12.3.1 Low-Pass Filter....827 12.3.2 A High-Pass Filter with Gain....831 12.3.3 Band-Pass Filter....833 12.3.4 Sensitivity....835 12.3.5 Magnitude and Frequency Scaling....836 12.4 Switched-Capacitor Circuits....837 12.4.1 A Switched-Capacitor Integrator....837 12.4.2 Noninverting SC Integrator....839 12.4.3 Switched-Capacitor Filters....841 12.5 Digital-to-Analog Conversion....844 12.5.1 D/A Converter Fundamentals....844 12.5.2 D/A Converter Errors....845 12.5.3 Digital-to-Analog Converter Circuits....847 12.6 Analog-to-Digital Conversion....851 12.6.1 A/D Converter Fundamentals....852 12.6.2 Analog-to-Digital Converter Errors....853 12.6.3 Basic A/D Conversion Techniques....854 12.7 Oscillators....865 12.7.1 The Barkhausen Criteria for Oscillation....865 12.7.2 Oscillators Employing Frequency-Selective RC Networks....866 12.8 Nonlinear Circuit Applications....870 12.8.1 A Precision Half-Wave Rectifier....870 12.8.2 Nonsaturating Precision-Rectifier Circuit....871 12.9 Circuits Using Positive Feedback....873 12.9.1 The Comparator and Schmitt Trigger....873 12.9.2 The Astable Multivibrator....875 12.9.3 The Monostable Multivibrator or One Shot....876 Summary....880 Key Terms....882 Additional Reading....883 Problems....883 CHAPTER 13 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS AND OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER DESIGN....895 13.1 Differential Amplifiers....896 13.1.1 Bipolar and MOS Differential Amplifiers....896 13.1.2 dc Analysis of the Bipolar Differential Amplifier....897 13.1.3 Transfer Characteristic for the Bipolar Differential Amplifier....899 13.1.4 ac Analysis of the Bipolar Differential Amplifier....900 13.1.5 Differential-Mode Gain and Input and Output Resistances....901 13.1.6 Common-Mode Gain and Input Resistance....903 13.1.7 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR....905 13.1.8 Analysis Using Differential- and Common-Mode Half-Circuits....906 13.1.9 Biasing with Electronic Current Sources....909 13.1.10 Modeling the Electronic Current Source in SPICE....910 13.1.11 dc Analysis of the MOSFET Differential Amplifier....910 13.1.12 Differential-Mode Input Signals....913 13.1.13 Small-Signal Transfer Characteristic for the MOS Differential Amplifier....914 13.1.14 Common-Mode Input Signals....914 13.1.15 Model for Differential Pairs....915 13.2 Evolution to Basic Operational Amplifiers....919 13.2.1 A Two-Stage Prototype for an Operational Amplifier....920 13.2.2 Improving the Op Amp Voltage Gain....925 13.2.3 Darlington Pairs....926 13.2.4 Output Resistance Reduction....927 13.2.5 A CMOS Operational Amplifier Prototype....931 13.2.6 BiCMOS Amplifiers....933 13.2.7 All Transistor Implementations....933 13.3 Output Stages....935 13.3.1 The Source Follower—a Class-A Output Stage....935 13.3.2 Efficiency of Class-A Amplifiers....936 13.3.3 Class-B Push-Pull Output Stage....937 13.3.4 Class-AB Amplifiers....939 13.3.5 Class-AB Output Stages for Operational Amplifiers....940 13.3.6 Short-Circuit Protection....940 13.3.7 Transformer Coupling....942 13.4 Electronic Current Sources....945 13.4.1 Single-Transistor Current Sources....946 13.4.2 Figure of Merit for Current Sources....946 13.4.3 Higher Output Resistance Sources....947 13.4.4 Current Source Design Examples....948 Summary....956 Key Terms....957 References....957 Additional Reading....958 Problems....958 CHAPTER 14 ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUIT DESIGN TECHNIQUES....975 14.1 Circuit Element Matching....976 14.2 Current Mirrors....977 14.2.1 dc Analysis of the MOS Transistor Current Mirror....978 14.2.2 Changing the MOS Mirror Ratio....980 14.2.3 dc Analysis of the Bipolar Transistor Current Mirror....981 14.2.4 Altering the BJT Current Mirror Ratio....983 14.2.5 Multiple Current Sources....984 14.2.6 Buffered Current Mirror....985 14.2.7 Output Resistance of the Current Mirrors....986 14.2.8 Two-Port Model for the Current Mirror....987 14.2.9 The Widlar Current Source....989 14.2.10 The MOS Version of the Widlar Source....992 14.2.11 MOS Widlar Source in Weak Inversion....992 14.3 High-Output-Resistance Current Mirrors....993 14.3.1 The Wilson Current Sources....994 14.3.2 Output Resistance of the Wilson Source....995 14.3.3 Cascode Current Sources....996 14.3.4 Output Resistance of the Cascode Sources....997 14.3.5 Regulated Cascode Current Source....998 14.3.6 Current Mirror Summary....999 14.4 Reference Current Generation....1002 14.5 Supply-Independent Biasing....1003 14.5.1 A V BE -Based Reference....1003 14.5.2 The Widlar Source....1003 14.5.3 Power-Supply-Independent Bias Cell....1004 14.5.4 A Supply-Independent MOS Reference Cell....1005 14.6 The Bandgap Reference....1007 14.7 The Current Mirror as an Active Load....1011 14.7.1 CMOS Differential Amplifier with Active Load....1011 14.7.2 Bipolar Differential Amplifier with Active Load....1018 14.8 Active Loads in Operational Amplifiers....1022 14.8.1 CMOS Op-Amp Voltage Gain....1022 14.8.2 dc Design Considerations....1023 14.8.3 Bipolar Operational Amplifiers....1025 14.8.4 Input Stage Breakdown....1026 14.9 The µA741 Operational Amplifier....1027 14.9.1 Overall Circuit Operation....1027 14.9.2 Bias Circuitry....1028 14.9.3 dc Analysis of the 741 Input Stage....1029 14.9.4 ac Analysis of the 741 Input Stage....1032 14.9.5 Voltage Gain of the Complete Amplifier....1033 14.9.6 The 741 Output Stage....1037 14.9.7 Output Resistance....1039 14.9.8 Short-Circuit Protection....1039 14.9.9 Summary of the µA741 Operational Amplifier Characteristics....1039 14.10 The Gilbert Analog Multiplier....1040 Summary....1042 Key Terms....1043 References....1044 Additional Readings....1044 Problems....1044 CHAPTER 15 TRANSISTOR FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND OSCILLATORS....1059 15.1 Basic Feedback System Review....1060 15.1.1 Closed-Loop Gain....1060 15.1.2 Closed-Loop Impedances....1061 15.1.3 Feedback Effects....1061 15.2 Feedback Amplifier Analysis at Midband....1063 15.2.1 Closed-Loop Gain....1063 15.2.2 Input Resistance....1064 15.2.3 Output Resistance....1064 15.2.4 Offset Voltage Calculation....1065 15.3 Feedback Amplifier Circuit Examples....1066 15.3.1 Series-Shunt Feedback—Voltage Amplifiers....1066 15.3.2 Differential Input Series-Shunt Voltage Amplifier....1071 15.3.3 Shunt-Shunt Feedback—Transresistance Amplifiers....1074 15.3.4 Series-Series Feedback—Transconductance Amplifiers....1080 15.3.5 Shunt-Series Feedback—Current Amplifiers....1083 15.4 Review of Feedback Amplifier Stability....1086 15.4.1 Closed-Loop Response of the Uncompensated Amplifier....1087 15.4.2 Phase Margin....1088 15.4.3 Higher-Order Effects....1092 15.4.4 Response of the Compensated Amplifier....1093 15.4.5 Small-Signal Limitations....1095 15.5 Single-Pole Operational Amplifier Compensation....1095 15.5.1 Three-Stage Op-Amp Analysis....1096 15.5.2 Transmission Zeros in FET Op Amps....1098 15.5.3 Bipolar Amplifier Compensation....1099 15.5.4 Slew Rate of the Operational Amplifier....1100 15.5.5 Relationships between Slew Rate and Gain-Bandwidth Product....1101 15.6 High-Frequency Oscillators....1110 15.6.1 The Colpitts Oscillator....1111 15.6.2 The Hartley Oscillator....1112 15.6.3 Amplitude Stabilization In LC Oscillators....1113 15.6.4 Negative Resistance in Oscillators....1113 15.6.5 Negative Gm Oscillator....1114 15.6.6 Crystal Oscillators....1116 15.6.7 Ring Oscillators....1119 15.6.8 Positive Feedback and Latchup....1120 Summary....1123 Key Terms....1125 Additional Readings....1125 Problems....1125 APPENDICES....1138 A Standard Discrete Component Values....1138 B Solid-State Device Models and SPICE Simulation Parameters....1141 C Two-Port Review....1146 D Physical Constants and Transistor Model Summary....1149 Index....1152